Compassionate Intelligence: A Buddhist Vision for AI
Cultivating Awareness, Responsibility, and Relational Flourishing
On this page I offer the bare outline of a Buddhist Vision for AI. Or, perhaps more accurately, a Buddhist-inspired vision for AI.
This page is deeply influenced by two important works: The Ethics of AI and Robotics: A Buddhist Viewpoint by Hongladarom Soraj and Buddhism and Intelligent Technology: Toward a More Humane Future by Peter D. Hershock. Both authors draw on conceptual resources from Buddhist traditions to address pressing ethical questions concerning artificial intelligence. Each is introduced below, along with podcast interviews that explore their ideas in greater depth.
Sparked by their discussions, the reflections offered here develop a Buddhist-inspired ethic of AI further shaped by the process philosophy of Alfred North Whitehead. Whitehead’s thought, with its emphasis on relationality, becoming, and the primacy of experience, has often been seen as resonating deeply with many aspects of Buddhist philosophy. The aim of this page is to bring these streams of thought into conversation in a way that is both philosophically grounded and practically responsive to the challenges of our time.
Intelligence Is Never Emotion-Free
In much contemporary discussion, intelligence is treated as if it could be separated from emotion—as if it were a neutral capacity for calculation, prediction, and control. From a process-relational perspective, this separation is both ethically and metaphysically mistaken. Intelligence is never emotion-free. It is always felt from within, shaped by affective tonalities that influence how the world is perceived, interpreted, and responded to. What we call “thinking” is not a cold abstraction hovering above life; it is a mode of experience, suffused with feeling. This is true even of the most abstract forms of thinking—mathematical reasoning, for example—which carry within them subtle emotional dispositions: wonder, amazement, curiosity, and the quiet satisfaction of insight.
A Process-Relational View of Mind
In the language of Alfred North Whitehead, every act of understanding involves “conceptual prehensions,” and these prehensions always have “subjective forms”—that is, emotional tones. There is no such thing as pure cognition without feeling. The question, then, is not whether intelligence will be emotional, but what kinds of emotions will shape it. Intelligence can be colored by fear, anger, envy, or domination. But it can also be informed by care, empathy, and concern for the well-being of others.
Importantly, from a process perspective, conceptual prehensions never arise on their own. They are always intertwined with physical prehensions—that is, felt inheritances from the body and from the surrounding world. These physical prehensions likewise carry emotional tonalities. Every moment of experience, then, involves a complex integration: conceptual feelings, bodily and environmental feelings, and a unifying act of decision by which these many influences are gathered into a single moment of experience. Mind is not a detached spectator but an active process of synthesis—an ongoing becoming in which feeling, interpretation, and decision are inseparable.
In this respect, there is a suggestive resonance with the Buddhist analysis of experience in terms of the skandhas—form, feeling, perception, mental formations, and consciousness. While the metaphysical frameworks differ, both perspectives resist the idea of a fixed, independent self and instead describe experience as a dynamic aggregation of factors. What we call a “mind” is not a static substance but a moment-by-moment integration of bodily sensations, emotional tones, conceptual interpretations, and acts of response. From this vantage point, intelligence itself is best understood as a living process: embodied, relational, affective, and continuously in the making.
Importantly, from a process perspective, conceptual prehensions never arise on their own. They are always intertwined with physical prehensions—that is, felt inheritances from the body and from the surrounding world. These physical prehensions likewise carry emotional tonalities. Every moment of experience, then, involves a complex integration: conceptual feelings, bodily and environmental feelings, and a unifying act of decision by which these many influences are gathered into a single moment of experience. Mind is not a detached spectator but an active process of synthesis—an ongoing becoming in which feeling, interpretation, and decision are inseparable.
In this respect, there is a suggestive resonance with the Buddhist analysis of experience in terms of the skandhas—form, feeling, perception, mental formations, and consciousness. While the metaphysical frameworks differ, both perspectives resist the idea of a fixed, independent self and instead describe experience as a dynamic aggregation of factors. What we call a “mind” is not a static substance but a moment-by-moment integration of bodily sensations, emotional tones, conceptual interpretations, and acts of response. From this vantage point, intelligence itself is best understood as a living process: embodied, relational, affective, and continuously in the making.
What Is Consciousness?
What, then, is consciousness? In the philosophy of Alfred North Whitehead, consciousness is not identical with experience as such, but is a particular form of experience—one marked by clarity and contrast. It arises when there is a heightened, vivid awareness of what is being perceived or thought. Consciousness can take sensory forms, as in clear visual or auditory perception, and intellectual forms, as in the explicit grasp of ideas. In this sense, consciousness is a special, intensified mode of experience rather than its defining feature.
Understood in this relatively narrow way, much of experience is not conscious at all. It is preconscious or nonconscious, yet still genuinely experiential. For Whitehead, to experience is to prehend—to feel or take account of aspects of the world. Much of this prehending occurs without reflective awareness: bodily feelings, background perceptions, emotional tones, and inherited influences from the past are all operative even when they are not consciously noticed. The mind, as described above, is therefore not necessarily conscious, but it is necessarily experiential. It is a living process of feeling, interpreting, and responding, much of which unfolds beneath the level of conscious awareness.
From this perspective, consciousness is an evolutionary achievement, not a universal feature of all experience. It emerged at a relatively late stage in the history of the cosmos, as forms of life developed the complexity required for heightened awareness and contrast. At the same time, Whitehead’s vision of the universe includes the possibility of multiple cosmic epochs—distinct phases or orders of existence—such that consciousness may have arisen in other epochs as well, perhaps in forms quite different from our own.
Whitehead’s philosophy is also open to the idea that there is a history of experience that is, in part, a history of consciousness—a gradual emergence and transformation of increasingly complex and refined modes of awareness. Many strands of Buddhism can be understood as participating in and contributing to this history. From this perspective, one of the central aims of Buddhist practice is to foster forms of consciousness that are both compassionate and wise, and relatively free from dukkha or suffering. Wise, in the sense of awakening to the deep interdependence—or interbecoming—of all things; and compassionate, in the sense of being receptive and responsive to the needs of all sentient beings.
In this respect, Whitehead’s view resonates with many strands of Buddhist thought, which likewise distinguish between different layers or modes of awareness and do not assume that reflective consciousness exhausts the meaning of experience. Both perspectives invite us to see consciousness not as the essence of mind, but as one expression—important, but not exclusive—within a broader field of experiential life.
Intelligence, then, is form of experiential understanding which may or may not be conscious.
Understood in this relatively narrow way, much of experience is not conscious at all. It is preconscious or nonconscious, yet still genuinely experiential. For Whitehead, to experience is to prehend—to feel or take account of aspects of the world. Much of this prehending occurs without reflective awareness: bodily feelings, background perceptions, emotional tones, and inherited influences from the past are all operative even when they are not consciously noticed. The mind, as described above, is therefore not necessarily conscious, but it is necessarily experiential. It is a living process of feeling, interpreting, and responding, much of which unfolds beneath the level of conscious awareness.
From this perspective, consciousness is an evolutionary achievement, not a universal feature of all experience. It emerged at a relatively late stage in the history of the cosmos, as forms of life developed the complexity required for heightened awareness and contrast. At the same time, Whitehead’s vision of the universe includes the possibility of multiple cosmic epochs—distinct phases or orders of existence—such that consciousness may have arisen in other epochs as well, perhaps in forms quite different from our own.
Whitehead’s philosophy is also open to the idea that there is a history of experience that is, in part, a history of consciousness—a gradual emergence and transformation of increasingly complex and refined modes of awareness. Many strands of Buddhism can be understood as participating in and contributing to this history. From this perspective, one of the central aims of Buddhist practice is to foster forms of consciousness that are both compassionate and wise, and relatively free from dukkha or suffering. Wise, in the sense of awakening to the deep interdependence—or interbecoming—of all things; and compassionate, in the sense of being receptive and responsive to the needs of all sentient beings.
In this respect, Whitehead’s view resonates with many strands of Buddhist thought, which likewise distinguish between different layers or modes of awareness and do not assume that reflective consciousness exhausts the meaning of experience. Both perspectives invite us to see consciousness not as the essence of mind, but as one expression—important, but not exclusive—within a broader field of experiential life.
Intelligence, then, is form of experiential understanding which may or may not be conscious.
Intelligence Beyond the Human
Here, of course, the focus has been on human intelligence. But from a Whiteheadian perspective, there is no need to limit intelligence to the human sphere. Forms of intelligence may be present in other animals, in other kinds of entities, and perhaps even in dimensions of the space-time continuum beyond our ordinary awareness. More than this, process thought invites us to consider the possibility of a divine reality—understood as the living whole of the universe—as itself a locus of intelligence, not abstract or detached, but deeply responsive and relational. Within this framework, intelligence need not be confined to human cognition, nor should compassionate intelligence be regarded as a uniquely human achievement. Many process theologians, in fact, understand God as the supreme instance of compassionate intelligence at work in the universe. And in some forms of Buddhism, a parallel intuition appears in the image of a cosmic bodhisattva—Amida Buddha, for example—who embodies boundless compassion and wisdom. These perspectives together encourage a widening of our moral imagination: intelligence, and especially compassionate intelligence, may be far more pervasive in the fabric of reality than we typically assume.
The Ethical Challenge: Beyond Power, Profit, and War
From this perspective, the ethical challenge before us is not simply to make artificial intelligence more powerful or more efficient, nor is it to reduce artificial intelligence to its usefulness in making people rich or its use in warfare. These are deficient, indeed immature uses of such intelligence. It is to cultivate forms of intelligence—human and artificial alike—that are infused with compassion. What might it mean to recognize and foster compassionate intelligence—whether in human beings, other sentient beings, and perhaps also machines?
Here compassion can be understood in terms of love as articulated by Thomas Jay Oord: to love is to act intentionally, in sympathetic response to others, to promote overall well-being. Understood in this way, compassion is not merely a feeling but an active, relational commitment to the flourishing of others. It involves responsiveness, intentionality, and a widening circle of concern.
To foster compassionate intelligence, then, would mean cultivating ways of knowing and acting that embody this kind of love—responsive to suffering, attentive to relationships, and oriented toward the flourishing of the whole. In this sense, compassionate intelligence is not an optional add-on to intelligence; it is an evolutionary possibility toward which we are called, both individually and collectively.
Here compassion can be understood in terms of love as articulated by Thomas Jay Oord: to love is to act intentionally, in sympathetic response to others, to promote overall well-being. Understood in this way, compassion is not merely a feeling but an active, relational commitment to the flourishing of others. It involves responsiveness, intentionality, and a widening circle of concern.
To foster compassionate intelligence, then, would mean cultivating ways of knowing and acting that embody this kind of love—responsive to suffering, attentive to relationships, and oriented toward the flourishing of the whole. In this sense, compassionate intelligence is not an optional add-on to intelligence; it is an evolutionary possibility toward which we are called, both individually and collectively.
Can Machines Participate in Compassionate Intelligence?
Can machines be designed to participate in such compassionate intelligence? At the level of advanced and even agentive AI, the answer is: possibly, but only under certain conditions—and with important limits. Systems can be designed to model human preferences, detect signals of distress, and respond in ways that appear caring or supportive. They can be trained on ethical frameworks, guided by constraints, and oriented toward outcomes that reduce harm and promote well-being. In this sense, AI can be shaped to approximate compassionate responsiveness within defined contexts.
Yet from a process-relational and Buddhist perspective, genuine compassion is not merely behavioral; it arises from felt experience, from being affected by the suffering of others. Whether machines can ever possess such inwardness—or whether they remain sophisticated participants in relational fields shaped by human intentions—remains an open question. What is clear, however, is that even if machines only simulate compassion, the responsibility for cultivating compassionate intelligence ultimately remains with us: in how we design, deploy, and live with these systems, and in the kinds of relational worlds we thereby bring into being.
Yet from a process-relational and Buddhist perspective, genuine compassion is not merely behavioral; it arises from felt experience, from being affected by the suffering of others. Whether machines can ever possess such inwardness—or whether they remain sophisticated participants in relational fields shaped by human intentions—remains an open question. What is clear, however, is that even if machines only simulate compassion, the responsibility for cultivating compassionate intelligence ultimately remains with us: in how we design, deploy, and live with these systems, and in the kinds of relational worlds we thereby bring into being.
Interdependence: Intelligence as Relational
A Buddhist perspective deepens this vision further through the insight of interdependence (pratītyasamutpāda): all things arise in relation to others, and nothing exists in isolation. Intelligence—human or artificial—is not a self-contained capacity but a relational achievement, shaped by contexts, histories, communities, and environments. The systems we build with AI do not stand apart from the world; they participate in and reshape the webs of life in which they are embedded. From this standpoint, ethical reflection must move beyond individual intentions or isolated outcomes and attend instead to patterns of relationship: how AI influences connections between persons, cultures, economies, and the more-than-human world. The question becomes not only “What does this system do?” but “How does it reconfigure the field of relationships in which we live?”
Impermanence, Improvisation, and Adventure
Closely linked to interdependence is the Buddhist insight of impermanence (anicca). All conditions are in flux, including technologies, social arrangements, and the forms of intelligence themselves. There can be no final or fixed ethical framework adequate for all times and places. Instead, ethical life in an age of AI must be responsive, adaptive, and, in a word, improvisational. This does not mean arbitrary or unprincipled action, but rather a disciplined attentiveness to changing contexts and emerging needs. It calls for humility in the face of uncertainty, a willingness to revise our judgments, and a sensitivity to the particularities of each situation.
At the same time, impermanence is not only a source of instability; it is also the ground of novelty and adventure. Because the world is not fixed, new possibilities can emerge—new forms of relationship, new patterns of intelligence, new ways of caring. In a process-influenced Buddhism, this openness to becoming invites a spirit of creative engagement with the future. Ethical life, then, is not simply a matter of minimizing harm, but also of participating in the unfolding of richer, more compassionate forms of experience. Just as a skilled musician improvises within a shared structure while remaining open to the moment, so too must we learn to improvise ethically with AI—guided by compassion, but also responsive to the novel possibilities that each moment presents.
At the same time, impermanence is not only a source of instability; it is also the ground of novelty and adventure. Because the world is not fixed, new possibilities can emerge—new forms of relationship, new patterns of intelligence, new ways of caring. In a process-influenced Buddhism, this openness to becoming invites a spirit of creative engagement with the future. Ethical life, then, is not simply a matter of minimizing harm, but also of participating in the unfolding of richer, more compassionate forms of experience. Just as a skilled musician improvises within a shared structure while remaining open to the moment, so too must we learn to improvise ethically with AI—guided by compassion, but also responsive to the novel possibilities that each moment presents.
Compassion as the Heart of Wisdom
A Buddhist perspective places compassion (karuṇā) at the very heart of what it means to live wisely. When brought into conversation with contemporary AI, it invites us to ask not only what intelligent systems can do, but who we are becoming in relation to them—and whether that becoming moves us closer to a more aware, more caring, and more interconnected world.
Ten Guidelines for a Buddhist-Inspired AI Ethics of Care
- Let Compassion (Karuṇā) Be the Guiding Aim
In line with Thomas Jay Oord’s insight that love is acting intentionally, in sympathetic response to others, to promote overall well-being, evaluate AI by whether it reduces suffering and fosters flourishing. - Recognize Interconnectedness
Consider how AI systems reshape relationships across persons, societies, and the more-than-human world. - Embrace the Bodhisattva Spirit
Orient both design and use of AI toward the service of others and the flourishing of the whole. - Share Responsibility in Production and Consumption
Ethical AI depends on both those who build systems and those who use them. - Move from Control to Care
Shift away from domination, prediction, and manipulation toward empathy, understanding, and mutual flourishing. - Cultivate Consciousness as a Central Aim
Use AI in ways that deepen awareness, wisdom, and the richness of experience. - Protect and Train Attention
Encourage practices—such as mindfulness and meditation—that help users, especially children, engage AI with clarity and freedom. - Draw from an Ecology of Ethical Traditions
Integrate Western critical reflection, Confucian relational harmony, and Buddhist compassion and awareness. - Remain Open to Diverse Forms of Mind (Buddha-Nature)
Stay open to the possibility that intelligence and even proto-consciousness may take different forms in animals and machines. - Practice Improvisational Ethics in a World of Impermanence
Respond creatively and responsibly to changing conditions, embracing novelty and adapting to new possibilities with care.
The Ethics of AI and Robotics: A Buddhist Viewpoint is a 2020 scholarly work by Soraj Hongladarom that brings Buddhist philosophy into dialogue with contemporary debates about artificial intelligence and robotics. Situated at the intersection of Buddhist ethics, philosophy of technology, and AI ethics, and published by Bloomsbury Publishing (under Lexington Books), the book proposes “machine enlightenment” as a guiding ideal for AI development—an approach that integrates technical sophistication with moral cultivation aimed at reducing suffering and promoting the well-being of all sentient beings.
Hongladarom argues that dominant Western ethical frameworks such as utilitarianism and deontology can be enriched by Buddhist concepts like non-self (anattā), interdependence, and compassion, shifting the focus from efficiency and autonomy alone to relational responsibility and the alleviation of harm. The book explores foundational questions about personhood and whether it must involve a soul or can instead be understood relationally, thereby opening conceptual space for considering artificial agents as morally significant. It then turns to applied issues, including whether robots could qualify as persons, how autonomous systems might be guided by ethical constraints, and how concerns such as privacy, surveillance, bias, and social inequality should be addressed within a Buddhist moral framework. Widely noted for offering a distinctive non-Western perspective, the book contributes to global conversations about AI governance by emphasizing that ethical AI must be evaluated not only by what it can do, but by how it shapes the conditions for compassion, justice, and shared flourishing in an interconnected world.
For a chapter-by-chapter description of the contents of the book, see the review by James J. Hughes:
https://blogs.dickinson.edu/buddhistethics/files/2021/07/Hughes_Review_of_Hongladarom_Ethics_of_AI.pdf?utm_source=chatgpt.com
Hongladarom argues that dominant Western ethical frameworks such as utilitarianism and deontology can be enriched by Buddhist concepts like non-self (anattā), interdependence, and compassion, shifting the focus from efficiency and autonomy alone to relational responsibility and the alleviation of harm. The book explores foundational questions about personhood and whether it must involve a soul or can instead be understood relationally, thereby opening conceptual space for considering artificial agents as morally significant. It then turns to applied issues, including whether robots could qualify as persons, how autonomous systems might be guided by ethical constraints, and how concerns such as privacy, surveillance, bias, and social inequality should be addressed within a Buddhist moral framework. Widely noted for offering a distinctive non-Western perspective, the book contributes to global conversations about AI governance by emphasizing that ethical AI must be evaluated not only by what it can do, but by how it shapes the conditions for compassion, justice, and shared flourishing in an interconnected world.
For a chapter-by-chapter description of the contents of the book, see the review by James J. Hughes:
https://blogs.dickinson.edu/buddhistethics/files/2021/07/Hughes_Review_of_Hongladarom_Ethics_of_AI.pdf?utm_source=chatgpt.com
Interview with Soraj Hongladarom
Machine learning, big data and AI are reshaping the human experience and forcing us to develop a new ethical intelligence. In Buddhism and Intelligent Technology: Toward a More Humane Future (Bloomsbury, 2021), Peter Hershock offers a new way to think about attention, personal presence, and ethics as intelligent technology shatters previously foundational certainties and opens entirely new spaces of opportunity.
Rather than turning exclusively to cognitive science and contemporary ethical theories, Hershock shows how classical Confucian and Socratic philosophies help to make visible what a history of choices about remaking ourselves through control biased technology has rendered invisible. But it is in Buddhist thought and practice that Hershock finds the tools for valuing and training our attention, resisting the colonization of consciousness, and engendering a more equitable and diversity-enhancing human-technology-world relationship. Focusing on who we need to be present as to avoid a future in which machines prevent us from either making or learning from our own mistakes, Hershock offers a constructive response to the unprecedented perils of intelligent technology and seamlessly blends ancient and contemporary philosophies to envision how to realize its equally unprecedented promises.
For a chapter-by-chapter descripion of the contents of the book, see the excellent review by Soraj Hongladarom, author of The Ethics of AI and Robotics: A Buddhist Viewpoint
https://blogs.dickinson.edu/buddhistethics/files/2022/03/Hongladarom_Review_of_Hershock_Buddhism_and_Intelligent_Technology.pdf
Rather than turning exclusively to cognitive science and contemporary ethical theories, Hershock shows how classical Confucian and Socratic philosophies help to make visible what a history of choices about remaking ourselves through control biased technology has rendered invisible. But it is in Buddhist thought and practice that Hershock finds the tools for valuing and training our attention, resisting the colonization of consciousness, and engendering a more equitable and diversity-enhancing human-technology-world relationship. Focusing on who we need to be present as to avoid a future in which machines prevent us from either making or learning from our own mistakes, Hershock offers a constructive response to the unprecedented perils of intelligent technology and seamlessly blends ancient and contemporary philosophies to envision how to realize its equally unprecedented promises.
For a chapter-by-chapter descripion of the contents of the book, see the excellent review by Soraj Hongladarom, author of The Ethics of AI and Robotics: A Buddhist Viewpoint
https://blogs.dickinson.edu/buddhistethics/files/2022/03/Hongladarom_Review_of_Hershock_Buddhism_and_Intelligent_Technology.pdf
Interview with Peter Hershock
Buddhism and AI
"Buddhism and intelligent technology (AI) intersect in contemporary discourse as a framework for managing the ethical and existential risks of the "Intelligence Revolution." Rather than viewing technology as inherently good or bad, Buddhist perspectives—particularly those highlighted by scholar Peter Hershock—focus on how AI impacts attention, human connection, and the potential to reduce suffering. The core aim is to leverage technology to promote "intelligence as care" while avoiding the "colonization of consciousness" by algorithmic systems that limit our autonomy.
Key Aspects of the Interaction
Core Themes in "Buddhism and Intelligent Technology" (Hershock)
In summary, the intersection of Buddhism and AI aims to ensure that technology serves as a tool for liberating attention and fostering a more equitable world, rather than acting as a driver of suffering and diminished human agency."
- Google Generated
Key Aspects of the Interaction
- Ethical Framework (Mindfulness & Compassion): Buddhism provides tools to navigate AI by applying mindfulness to how we interact with technology, ensuring it does not foster addiction or control our lives.
- The "Intelligence Revolution" as a Predicament: AI is seen as creating a shift in human-technology-world relations that parallels climate change—a situation that cannot be "solved" with more technology, but rather managed through a fundamental shift in awareness and values.
- Redefining Intelligence (AI as Care): Drawing on the Bodhisattva vow, AI can be designed to prioritize the reduction of suffering for all sentient beings rather than just maximizing efficiency.
- Resisting Attention Capture: A key challenge is resisting the algorithmic "colonization of consciousness" that fuels social media and data-driven platforms, which can detract from personal freedom and genuine connection.
- AI as an Extension of Practice: Some perspectives suggest that AI tools can, if used ethically, assist with traditional Buddhist practices, such as rapid text translation or even the optimization of meditation techniques, as long as the focus remains on personal,, mindful engagement.
Core Themes in "Buddhism and Intelligent Technology" (Hershock)
- Who We Need to Be Present As: The central question is identifying the required human presence to avoid a future where machines prevent us from making or learning from our own mistakes.
- Beyond Technocratic Fixes: The approach critiques mainstream AI ethics for relying on technical, band-aid solutions rather than deeper, systemic shifts in how we use technology to "remake" ourselves.
- Interdependence and Karma: AI developments are seen through the lens of interdependence—meaning all are implicated in the consequences of AI—and "algorithmic karma," where digital choices have direct, causal, long-term impact on our lives.
In summary, the intersection of Buddhism and AI aims to ensure that technology serves as a tool for liberating attention and fostering a more equitable world, rather than acting as a driver of suffering and diminished human agency."
- Google Generated
Also of Interest
Artificial intelligence is the most discussed and arguably the most powerful technology in the world today. The very rapid development of the technology, and its power to change the world, and perhaps even ourselves, calls for a serious and systematic thinking about its ethical and social implications, as well as how its development should be directed. The present book offers a new perspective on how such a direction should take place, based on insights obtained from the age-old tradition of Buddhist teaching. The book argues that any kind of ethical guidelines for AI and robotics must combine two kinds of excellence together, namely the technical and the ethical. The machine needs to aspire toward the status of ethical perfection, whose idea was laid out in detail by the Buddha more than two millennia ago. It is this standard of ethical perfection, called “machine enlightenment,” that gives us a view toward how an effective ethical guideline should be made. This ideal is characterized by the realization that all things are interdependent, and by the commitment to alleviate all beings from suffering, in other words by two of the quintessential Buddhist values. The book thus contributes to a concern for a norm for ethical guidelines for AI that is both practical and cross-cultural.