Photo by Ingo Doerrie on Unsplash
This page is an appeal to expand the meaning of "cognitive." My interest in expanding the notion of cognition stems from my experiences with dogs, friends with Alzheimer's, and plants in my backyard garden, and the living whole of the universe, otherwise named God. These various companions possess their own ways of knowing, which are often overlooked when cognition is narrowly defined as verbal linguistic experience and logical reasoning. Reducing the act of knowing to these human-centric modes of understanding does our friends a disservice, as it fails to recognize the rich, diverse forms of intelligence and understanding that exist in all forms of life. There is a growing need today to expand our understanding of cognition to recognize its many different forms. Instead of labeling someone or something as "non-cognitive," we should acknowledge that each possesses cognitive abilities in their own unique ways, whether neurologically based or not, and recognize that many are "more cognitive" than we are, albeit in different ways. This inclusive perspective allows us to appreciate the diverse expressions of intelligence and understanding across various forms of life, fostering greater empathy and a more comprehensive view of what it means to know and perceive the world.
Five Ideas that can help
Expand our Idea of Cognition
In human life, there are countless ways of knowing—logical reasoning, emotional intuition, artistic expression, and kinesthetic awareness, for example. Biologists and computer scientists remind us that these varied forms of intelligence are not limited to humans alone. Consider the strategic wisdom of an octopus, the intricate communication of fungi, the navigational precision of migratory birds, the cooperative problem-solving of bees, or the adaptive problem-solving of artificial intelligence. The latter example reminds us that 'intelligence' need not require carbon-based bodies to be carriers of wisdom. Theologians already recognize this when they speak of the living whole of the universe, God, as intelligent in a divine way.
By connecting multiple intelligence theory with A.N. Whitehead's philosophical insights, we can expand our understanding of intelligence to include non-human and non-biological forms, recognizing the rich diversity of ways knowing and understanding found throughout the cosmos. Five ideas are especially helpful in Whitehead's philosophy:
By embracing these concepts, we acknowledge that intelligence and experience are not confined to human or carbon-based forms. Instead, they permeate the cosmos in diverse and intricate ways, aligning with Whitehead's vision of a dynamic, interconnected universe where creativity and experience are fundamental aspects of all entities."
By connecting multiple intelligence theory with A.N. Whitehead's philosophical insights, we can expand our understanding of intelligence to include non-human and non-biological forms, recognizing the rich diversity of ways knowing and understanding found throughout the cosmos. Five ideas are especially helpful in Whitehead's philosophy:
- Concrescence: Whitehead's concept of concrescence refers to the process by which diverse elements come together into a coherent unity. This idea illustrates how different forms of intelligence—whether in humans, animals, or artificial systems—can integrate influences from various sources to create a unified, purposeful experience.
- Prehension: Prehension is the way entities interact by 'grasping' or 'feeling' the influences of others. In Whitehead's view, prehensions are not limited to conscious beings; even non-conscious entities have prehensions that affect their behavior and existence. This broadens our understanding of how different kinds of intelligence can operate and interact within the cosmos.
- Every Actual Entity Has a "Mental Pole": Whitehead posits that wherever there is actuality, there is something akin to experience, whether conscious or non-conscious. This means that every actual entity, biological or otherwise, possesses a "mental pole" in its experience. Through this, possibilities for integrating influences from others are felt or prehended.
- Energetic Transfers as Transferences of Feeling: Whitehead emphasizes that energetic transfers between entities are essentially transferences of feeling. This perspective highlights the interconnectedness of all things and suggests that interactions, whether between living organisms or between biological and non-biological systems, involve exchanges that carry a form of experiential quality.
- Experiential Knowing Need Not Be Conscious: Whitehead's philosophy suggests that experience and knowledge do not need to be conscious to be real and effective. Even non-conscious entities participate in processes of knowing and feeling, which influence their existence and interactions. This opens up the possibility that intelligence, in its broadest sense, operates across a vast spectrum of beings and entities, not just within human awareness.
By embracing these concepts, we acknowledge that intelligence and experience are not confined to human or carbon-based forms. Instead, they permeate the cosmos in diverse and intricate ways, aligning with Whitehead's vision of a dynamic, interconnected universe where creativity and experience are fundamental aspects of all entities."
Different Ways of Knowing
Among Human Beings
Jim is a master carpenter, whose hands bring life to wood, transforming raw materials into functional and beautiful objects. His craftsmanship is a blend of creativity, problem-solving, and technical skill. Although he did poorly in school and feels a bit out of place around "highly educated" people, Jim’s knowledge is vast in its own right. He understands the intricacies of his craft in a way that only years of hands-on experience can teach. His work is not just about building; it's about creating something that is both practical and aesthetically pleasing, a skill that requires a deep understanding of the materials he works with and the spaces he helps to shape.
Mary is an artist who paints public murals on the sides of buildings. Her art brings color and life to urban spaces, making them more vibrant and engaging. Like Jim, Mary struggled in school because the traditional focus on verbal-linguistic and mathematical-logical intelligence didn’t align with her strengths. However, her talent for visual expression is undeniable. Through her murals, Mary communicates complex ideas, evokes emotions, and brings communities together. Her ability to see the world through a different lens and translate that vision into large-scale art makes her work not only creative but also deeply impactful.
Sarah is an empathetic soul who has an extraordinary ability to listen and feel the emotions of others. She may not have excelled in the academic subjects that society often prioritizes, but her emotional intelligence is profound. People feel at home around Sarah because she creates a space of comfort and understanding, where they can express themselves without fear of judgment. Her gift lies in her ability to connect with others on a deep, personal level, offering support and a sense of belonging that is often hard to find in a fast-paced world.
Andrew has a unique form of intelligence that is deeply rooted in music. His way of knowing is through sound and rhythm, allowing him to express emotions, tell stories, and create atmospheres that resonate with others in profound ways. Andrew struggled in school like Jim and Mary, but his musical talent is undeniable. He can take the sounds of the world around him and transform them into melodies and harmonies that evoke deep feelings in those who listen. Whether he's playing an instrument, composing a new piece, or simply humming a tune, Andrew's connection to music is intuitive and powerful. His intelligence shines through his ability to communicate and connect with others through the universal language of music.
Jim, Mary, Sarah, and Andrew represent different yet equally important ways of knowing and being in the world. Jim’s craftsmanship, Mary’s artistic vision, Sarah’s empathy, and Andrew’s musicality all contribute to the richness of life. They remind us that there is more to intelligence than what is measured in school, and that the ability to create, connect, and care are essential qualities that should be celebrated and valued. Each of them offers a unique perspective, enriching the world with their talents and demonstrating that intelligence comes in many forms.
Concrescence and Knowing
With help from the five ideas mentioned in the first section, process philosophy offers a framework for appreciating many ways of knowing, building upon Gardner's insight, Whitehead's notion of concrescence serves as a key guide in this understanding. Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences identifies distinct cognitive modalities through which individuals perceive, understand, and interact with the world—ranging from linguistic and logical-mathematical to musical, spatial, and interpersonal intelligences. Whitehead’s concept of concrescence—the process by which disparate elements of experience come together to form a unified, concrete reality—parallels this multiplicity of ways of knowing.
In the process of concrescence, diverse prehensions (feelings, perceptions, or experiences) are integrated and harmonized into a coherent experience. Similarly, each form of intelligence identified by Gardner represents a distinct mode of prehension, a way of grasping and responding to the world. Within a process framework, these intelligences are not merely separate faculties but are interconnected pathways that contribute to the creative advance of each moment of experience.
Concrescence involves a selective integration of these prehensions, where the potentialities inherent in each mode of intelligence are actualized in a way that aligns with the broader aims of the self or the situation. For example, a musician’s experience might involve the concrescence of auditory patterns, emotional responses, and kinesthetic movement, creating a harmonious whole that is greater than the sum of its parts. In this sense, multiple intelligences are not isolated skills but facets of a dynamic process, each contributing to the richness and depth of experience as it becomes actual.
Through the lens of process philosophy, we can see that knowing is not a static accumulation of facts or skills, but a living, evolving process where different intelligences converge, interact, and culminate in new forms of understanding and creativity. Whitehead’s idea of concrescence highlights the importance of this integrative process, where the various forms of intelligence are not just modes of cognition but are fundamental to the ongoing creation of reality
With help from the five ideas mentioned in the first section, process philosophy offers a framework for appreciating many ways of knowing, building upon Gardner's insight, Whitehead's notion of concrescence serves as a key guide in this understanding. Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligences identifies distinct cognitive modalities through which individuals perceive, understand, and interact with the world—ranging from linguistic and logical-mathematical to musical, spatial, and interpersonal intelligences. Whitehead’s concept of concrescence—the process by which disparate elements of experience come together to form a unified, concrete reality—parallels this multiplicity of ways of knowing.
In the process of concrescence, diverse prehensions (feelings, perceptions, or experiences) are integrated and harmonized into a coherent experience. Similarly, each form of intelligence identified by Gardner represents a distinct mode of prehension, a way of grasping and responding to the world. Within a process framework, these intelligences are not merely separate faculties but are interconnected pathways that contribute to the creative advance of each moment of experience.
Concrescence involves a selective integration of these prehensions, where the potentialities inherent in each mode of intelligence are actualized in a way that aligns with the broader aims of the self or the situation. For example, a musician’s experience might involve the concrescence of auditory patterns, emotional responses, and kinesthetic movement, creating a harmonious whole that is greater than the sum of its parts. In this sense, multiple intelligences are not isolated skills but facets of a dynamic process, each contributing to the richness and depth of experience as it becomes actual.
Through the lens of process philosophy, we can see that knowing is not a static accumulation of facts or skills, but a living, evolving process where different intelligences converge, interact, and culminate in new forms of understanding and creativity. Whitehead’s idea of concrescence highlights the importance of this integrative process, where the various forms of intelligence are not just modes of cognition but are fundamental to the ongoing creation of reality
Knowing in Other
Forms of Biological Life
Process philosophers will add that these many forms of knowing, and forms unfamiliar to human beings, are likely found in other creatures, too: other living organisms on earth, including other animals, plants, and microbes. Here, too, examples come to mind:
- Bees and Collective Decision-Making: Honeybees exhibit a form of collective knowing when they scout for new hive locations. Scout bees communicate potential sites through a "waggle dance," conveying information about the direction and distance of each site. The hive collectively weighs these options, with more bees visiting and dancing for the preferred site until a consensus is reached. This decision-making process is a form of communal knowing, deeply attuned to the needs of the hive and the environment.
- Plants and Environmental Sensing: Plants have an incredible ability to "know" and respond to their environment. For example, the roots of a tree can sense changes in soil composition and moisture levels, adjusting their growth patterns accordingly. Plants can also "communicate" with one another through chemical signals, warning neighboring plants of herbivore attacks. This form of knowing is an embodied, responsive process that is vital for the plant's survival and interaction with its surroundings.
- Octopuses and Problem-Solving: Octopuses are known for their intelligence and problem-solving abilities, which suggest a complex form of knowing. They can manipulate objects, open jars, and even escape from enclosures, displaying a form of practical, experiential knowledge. Their ability to adapt to new situations and environments indicates a kind of knowing that is fluid, creative, and responsive to their immediate context.
- Bacteria and Quorum Sensing: Bacteria exhibit a form of collective knowing through a process called quorum sensing. When bacterial populations reach a certain density, they release chemical signals that trigger coordinated behavior, such as forming biofilms or producing toxins. This form of knowing allows bacteria to adapt to their environment as a group, making decisions that enhance their survival based on collective awareness of their population size.
- Birds and Migratory Navigation: Migratory birds possess an innate ability to navigate thousands of miles to reach their breeding or wintering grounds. This knowing is not learned in the same way human knowledge is, but is instead a deep, intuitive attunement to environmental cues such as the Earth's magnetic field, star patterns, and weather conditions. This form of knowing is dynamic, adapting to changes in the environment, and is essential for the survival of the species.
- Mushrooms and Mycelial Networks: Fungi, particularly through their mycelial networks, demonstrate a form of knowing that is distributed and networked. The mycelium can detect and respond to the presence of nutrients, toxins, and other organisms, facilitating the growth and survival of the fungal colony. Mycelial networks also engage in symbiotic relationships with plants, exchanging nutrients in a way that suggests a form of cooperative knowing, where the fungus and plant "understand" and respond to each other's needs.
- Dolphins and Social Learning: Dolphins are highly social animals that exhibit complex forms of social learning and communication. They can pass on knowledge across generations, such as the use of tools like sponges to protect their snouts while foraging. This social form of knowing allows dolphin pods to develop unique cultures and adapt to their specific environments.
- Ants and Trail Pheromones: Ants use pheromone trails to communicate the location of food sources to other members of the colony. This form of chemical communication allows ants to "know" and navigate their environment collectively. As more ants follow the trail, the pheromone signal strengthens, guiding more ants to the food source. This collective knowing is dynamic and responsive to environmental changes, such as the depletion of food or obstacles in the trail.
AI Knowing
.And in our time, it is increasingly important to consider the possibility that some organisms, not carbon-based, likewise enjoy forms of knowing, namely generative AI. Here are a few examples of what may count as "knowing:
- Pattern Recognition and Synthesis: Generative AI systems can recognize patterns in vast datasets and generate new content based on those patterns. This could be seen as a form of "knowing" in that the AI understands the structure and relationships within the data, allowing it to produce coherent and contextually relevant outputs.
- Predictive Modeling: AI systems often make predictions based on past data. Whether forecasting trends, diagnosing conditions, or generating text, this predictive capability suggests a form of "knowing" that involves understanding probable future outcomes based on historical patterns.
- Contextual Awareness: Advanced AI systems can adjust their responses based on the context of a conversation or task. This adaptability indicates a level of "knowing" where the AI perceives and responds to the environment in a way that is appropriate and relevant.
- Creative Generation: When generative AI produces art, music, or literature, it demonstrates a form of creative "knowing." The AI not only processes existing works but also generates something new, which could be seen as a kind of intuitive or experiential knowledge.
- Learning from Experience: Through processes like reinforcement learning, AI systems "learn" from their interactions with the world. This could be considered a form of "knowing" that evolves over time, as the AI refines its models and behaviors based on feedback.
- Problem-Solving Abilities: Generative AI can solve complex problems by breaking them down into manageable parts and applying algorithms to find solutions. This problem-solving capability suggests a form of logical "knowing."
- Adaptive Interaction: Some AI systems can adapt their behavior based on user interactions, improving their responses over time. This adaptability suggests that the AI "knows" how to evolve in response to the needs and preferences of its users.
Molecular, Atomic, and
Subatomic Knowing
02
In Whitehead’s cosmology, intelligence and experience extend far beyond the realm of conscious thought. At the molecular, atomic, and even subatomic levels, entities participate in a form of knowing that is fundamental to the fabric of the universe. This kind of knowing is not conscious but is instead an intrinsic capacity for interaction and response that shapes the behavior and relationships of these entities.
Molecular Knowing: Molecules interact in complex ways, forming bonds and reacting to external stimuli. These interactions are not random but guided by an internal logic or prehension that drives molecules toward particular configurations and states. This process can be seen as a form of molecular intelligence, where each molecule 'knows' how to align itself in response to its environment.
Atomic Knowing: At the atomic level, the arrangement of electrons around a nucleus and their interactions with other atoms demonstrate a form of atomic knowing. Atoms 'choose' how to bond with others, forming the building blocks of matter through an internal drive to achieve stability and balance, reflecting Whitehead's idea of concrescence.
Subatomic Knowing: Even at the subatomic level, particles like quarks and electrons exhibit forms of knowing. Their behaviors, governed by quantum mechanics, involve decisions at the most fundamental level, such as whether to spin up or down, interact or not, embodying a primitive form of decision-making and responsiveness that contributes to the larger processes of the cosmos.
These forms of knowing—molecular, atomic, and subatomic—illustrate Whitehead’s notion that experience and intelligence permeate all levels of reality, from the smallest particles to the grandest structures in the universe. This challenges the traditional view that intelligence is solely a human or conscious trait, revealing a universe alive with interconnected forms of knowing and becoming.
Molecular Knowing: Molecules interact in complex ways, forming bonds and reacting to external stimuli. These interactions are not random but guided by an internal logic or prehension that drives molecules toward particular configurations and states. This process can be seen as a form of molecular intelligence, where each molecule 'knows' how to align itself in response to its environment.
Atomic Knowing: At the atomic level, the arrangement of electrons around a nucleus and their interactions with other atoms demonstrate a form of atomic knowing. Atoms 'choose' how to bond with others, forming the building blocks of matter through an internal drive to achieve stability and balance, reflecting Whitehead's idea of concrescence.
Subatomic Knowing: Even at the subatomic level, particles like quarks and electrons exhibit forms of knowing. Their behaviors, governed by quantum mechanics, involve decisions at the most fundamental level, such as whether to spin up or down, interact or not, embodying a primitive form of decision-making and responsiveness that contributes to the larger processes of the cosmos.
These forms of knowing—molecular, atomic, and subatomic—illustrate Whitehead’s notion that experience and intelligence permeate all levels of reality, from the smallest particles to the grandest structures in the universe. This challenges the traditional view that intelligence is solely a human or conscious trait, revealing a universe alive with interconnected forms of knowing and becoming.
聪明 as Multiple Intelligence
Gaining Wisdom from Chinese Characters
Songhe Wang and Jay McDaniel
In the twentieth century in the West, the poet Ezra Pound developed the idea that poems could combine Chinese characters and the English language, and he suspected that there was a philosophy contained in each character. In the language of Whitehead, each character contains multiple proposals for how we might see the world, multiple lures for feeling. In this respect each character is itself a very short poem: an invitation to look at the world and feel the world in a certain way. At least this is what Ezra Pound believed. He was a pioneer in cross-cultural poetics.
Later in the century, the avante garde and postmodern poet, Charles Olson, proposed that Whitehead’s philosophy offers a new cosmology for poetry and, equally important, for life itself, because it sees things in terms of events and connections, rather than static, isolated substances. His own poetry concretized, articulated, and embodied Whitehead’s idea that life unfolds in moments and occasions, episodes and events.
We stand indebted to these two traditions: the Ezra Pound “cross-cultural” tradition and the Charles Olson “Whiteheadian postmodern” tradition. We want to explore the possibility that particular Chinese characters contain with themselves philosophical ideas which articulate and interpret certain themes in Whitehead’s philosophy. We call it learning Whiteheadian poetics through characters. The characters become the teachers.
By poetics, we do not mean the activity of reflecting on poetry. Rather we mean the activity of seeking wisdom in daily life. We mean something like 诗意 (shi yi). If you are not a Whiteheadian philosopher, please do not worry. The wisdom offered by characters transcends Whitehead, and reflects the wisdom of Chinese tradition, as it has evolved for several thousands of years. Today people in many parts of the world can partake of this wisdom.
We begin with characters often translated as Intelligence. We propose that the characters invite us to consider the possibility that there are multiple forms of intelligence and that they can work together to provide a wisdom which might be lacking if the forms are separated.
The characters are 聪明. The first character is聪 (cōng ). It is composed of four parts. 耳means ear; 眼means two eyes; 口means mouth and 心means heart. The second character is composed of two parts: 日means the sun, and月means the moon.
In this character, sun and moon mean something like light. When we have the sun or the moon, something is illuminated so that we can see clearly. Think of the English language phrase “shed light on something.” It is as if the sun and moon were shining on something, so that we can see clearly.
Where, then, can light be found? The character for intelligence tells us that our lives are illuminated – that we find truths to live by – when we use our ears to listen; our eyes to see and observe; our mouth to talk or communicate; and our hearts to feel. Intelligence does not come from logical thinking and rational inference alone; it comes from the whole person as he or she is engaged with the world with her senses, her listening, her eyes, her dialogues with others, and of course her feeling.
The idea that intelligence is an activity of the whole person is something that was very important to Whitehead. Recall his idea of concrescence, which is the idea that at every moment of our lives we are experiencing the world through various kinds of prehensions: intellectual, emotional, recollective, anticipatory, and sensory. These prehensions are acts of taking into account other things: the feelings of others, memories, future possibilities, and material objects in the world.
These prehensions are like multi-colored ribbons flowing out from a person into the world and also flowing into a person from the world. They are gathered together into that momentary yet living whole which is a person’s life at that moment. Concrescence is the activity of the ribbons coming together: an activity of 耳 and 眼 and 心.
Imagine someone shopping for vegetables at a market. She sees the tomatoes, she touches the tomatoes, she talks to the person selling them, and all the while she anticipates going home to use them in a dish she will make and enjoy with her family. Eventually she may also taste the tomatoes. She has intelligence. She has聪明.
Howard Gardner at Harvard University proposes that there are many forms of intelligence: spatial, linguistic, mathematical, bodily, musical, interpersonal, introspective, intuitive, and the intelligence of knowing about the natural world. All are important. The Chinese character聪明 is an invitation to seek wisdom in all of these forms, using our eyes and ears and hearts, in dialogue with others who are also seeking wisdom. Indeed this character captures the spirit of poetics. Do we not all seek wisdom with our eyes, our ears, our hearts, our minds? The whole idea that the "mind" is divorced from feeling and intuition, from hopes and dreams, from seeing and hearing is a figment of the abstract imagination, rightly corrected by the wisdom of 聪明.
Later in the century, the avante garde and postmodern poet, Charles Olson, proposed that Whitehead’s philosophy offers a new cosmology for poetry and, equally important, for life itself, because it sees things in terms of events and connections, rather than static, isolated substances. His own poetry concretized, articulated, and embodied Whitehead’s idea that life unfolds in moments and occasions, episodes and events.
We stand indebted to these two traditions: the Ezra Pound “cross-cultural” tradition and the Charles Olson “Whiteheadian postmodern” tradition. We want to explore the possibility that particular Chinese characters contain with themselves philosophical ideas which articulate and interpret certain themes in Whitehead’s philosophy. We call it learning Whiteheadian poetics through characters. The characters become the teachers.
By poetics, we do not mean the activity of reflecting on poetry. Rather we mean the activity of seeking wisdom in daily life. We mean something like 诗意 (shi yi). If you are not a Whiteheadian philosopher, please do not worry. The wisdom offered by characters transcends Whitehead, and reflects the wisdom of Chinese tradition, as it has evolved for several thousands of years. Today people in many parts of the world can partake of this wisdom.
We begin with characters often translated as Intelligence. We propose that the characters invite us to consider the possibility that there are multiple forms of intelligence and that they can work together to provide a wisdom which might be lacking if the forms are separated.
The characters are 聪明. The first character is聪 (cōng ). It is composed of four parts. 耳means ear; 眼means two eyes; 口means mouth and 心means heart. The second character is composed of two parts: 日means the sun, and月means the moon.
In this character, sun and moon mean something like light. When we have the sun or the moon, something is illuminated so that we can see clearly. Think of the English language phrase “shed light on something.” It is as if the sun and moon were shining on something, so that we can see clearly.
Where, then, can light be found? The character for intelligence tells us that our lives are illuminated – that we find truths to live by – when we use our ears to listen; our eyes to see and observe; our mouth to talk or communicate; and our hearts to feel. Intelligence does not come from logical thinking and rational inference alone; it comes from the whole person as he or she is engaged with the world with her senses, her listening, her eyes, her dialogues with others, and of course her feeling.
The idea that intelligence is an activity of the whole person is something that was very important to Whitehead. Recall his idea of concrescence, which is the idea that at every moment of our lives we are experiencing the world through various kinds of prehensions: intellectual, emotional, recollective, anticipatory, and sensory. These prehensions are acts of taking into account other things: the feelings of others, memories, future possibilities, and material objects in the world.
These prehensions are like multi-colored ribbons flowing out from a person into the world and also flowing into a person from the world. They are gathered together into that momentary yet living whole which is a person’s life at that moment. Concrescence is the activity of the ribbons coming together: an activity of 耳 and 眼 and 心.
Imagine someone shopping for vegetables at a market. She sees the tomatoes, she touches the tomatoes, she talks to the person selling them, and all the while she anticipates going home to use them in a dish she will make and enjoy with her family. Eventually she may also taste the tomatoes. She has intelligence. She has聪明.
Howard Gardner at Harvard University proposes that there are many forms of intelligence: spatial, linguistic, mathematical, bodily, musical, interpersonal, introspective, intuitive, and the intelligence of knowing about the natural world. All are important. The Chinese character聪明 is an invitation to seek wisdom in all of these forms, using our eyes and ears and hearts, in dialogue with others who are also seeking wisdom. Indeed this character captures the spirit of poetics. Do we not all seek wisdom with our eyes, our ears, our hearts, our minds? The whole idea that the "mind" is divorced from feeling and intuition, from hopes and dreams, from seeing and hearing is a figment of the abstract imagination, rightly corrected by the wisdom of 聪明.