Political Rhetoric
Whitehead, Mark Antony, and
the Emotional Power of Language
Marlon Brando as Mark Antony in ‘Julius Caesar’ (1953)
Persuasive Rhetoric
In Julius Caesar, Shakespeare presents two of the most famous speeches in theatrical history—those of Brutus and Antony—both delivered in the wake of Caesar’s assassination. Brutus, the self-proclaimed defender of Roman liberty, appeals to reason, explaining why the assassination was necessary for the survival of the republic. Antony, on the other hand, takes a different approach. While outwardly respecting Brutus, he subtly dismantles Brutus’ justification through irony, emotional appeals, and a masterful use of rhetorical devices.
The contrast between Brutus and Antony in Julius Caesar reveals a fundamental truth about persuasion: logic alone rarely moves people; feeling does. Whitehead’s insights into propositions as lures for feeling, and his idea that all experiences includes subjective forms or emotions, help explain why Antony’s speech succeeds—his words are not just statements but emotional invitations that guide his audience into an entirely new affective reality. In the end, Antony wins not because he proves Brutus wrong, but because he makes the audience feel the weight of Caesar’s death in a way Brutus never could.
This Whiteheadian reading of persuasion suggests that successful rhetoric is always more than argument—it is about shaping the mood and texture of experience itself. And experience, in Whitehead's philosophy, is the fundamental foundation of life. Perhaps this is why Antony’s speech remains one of the most powerful acts of persuasion in all of literature: it is not merely an argument; it is an emotional event that transforms reality in the hearts of those who hear it.
The contrast between Brutus and Antony in Julius Caesar reveals a fundamental truth about persuasion: logic alone rarely moves people; feeling does. Whitehead’s insights into propositions as lures for feeling, and his idea that all experiences includes subjective forms or emotions, help explain why Antony’s speech succeeds—his words are not just statements but emotional invitations that guide his audience into an entirely new affective reality. In the end, Antony wins not because he proves Brutus wrong, but because he makes the audience feel the weight of Caesar’s death in a way Brutus never could.
This Whiteheadian reading of persuasion suggests that successful rhetoric is always more than argument—it is about shaping the mood and texture of experience itself. And experience, in Whitehead's philosophy, is the fundamental foundation of life. Perhaps this is why Antony’s speech remains one of the most powerful acts of persuasion in all of literature: it is not merely an argument; it is an emotional event that transforms reality in the hearts of those who hear it.
Ray Fearon
The Script
Friends, Romans, countrymen, lend me your ears;
I come to bury Caesar, not to praise him.
The evil that men do lives after them;
The good is oft interred with their bones;
So let it be with Caesar. The noble Brutus
Hath told you Caesar was ambitious:
If it were so, it was a grievous fault,
And grievously hath Caesar answer’d it.
Here, under leave of Brutus and the rest–
For Brutus is an honourable man;
So are they all, all honourable men–
Come I to speak in Caesar’s funeral.
He was my friend, faithful and just to me:
But Brutus says he was ambitious;
And Brutus is an honourable man.
He hath brought many captives home to Rome
Whose ransoms did the general coffers fill:
Did this in Caesar seem ambitious?
When that the poor have cried, Caesar hath wept:
Ambition should be made of sterner stuff:
Yet Brutus says he was ambitious;
And Brutus is an honourable man.
You all did see that on the Lupercal
I thrice presented him a kingly crown,
Which he did thrice refuse: was this ambition?
Yet Brutus says he was ambitious;
And, sure, he is an honourable man.
I speak not to disprove what Brutus spoke,
But here I am to speak what I do know.
You all did love him once, not without cause:
What cause withholds you then, to mourn for him?
O judgment! thou art fled to brutish beasts,
And men have lost their reason. Bear with me;
My heart is in the coffin there with Caesar,
And I must pause till it come back to me.
Marlon Brando
Propositions and Subjective Forms
In teaching Whitehead's Process and Reality, I typically emphasize ten ideas: Whitehead's Eight Categories of Existence along with Creativity and God. I tell my students that, if they understand these ten, they have gone a long way toward understanding Whitehead's magnum opus. Not the whole way, but a long way.
When we get to two of the eight categories—propositions and subjective forms—I turn to Mark Antony’s funeral oration in Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar.
Whitehead suggests that propositions are more than logical statements; they are “lures for feeling.” When communicated, they initiate and evoke subjective forms in their audiences—moods, emotions, and attitudes that shape how people interpret and respond to what is said.
Antony’s speech is a masterful illustration of this power. On the surface, he appears to accept Brutus’s justification for Caesar’s assassination, repeatedly declaring, “Brutus is an honourable man.” Yet, through tone, repetition, and irony, this proposition transforms into an emotional lure, pulling the Roman crowd from passive mourning into active rebellion. What begins as a statement of fact subtly evolves into an invitation to doubt, question, and ultimately rage against Brutus and the conspirators.
This example underscores the impact of language on human experience. Political rhetoric, religious teachings, poetry, and even casual conversation all function as more than conveyors of information; they shape moods, direct attention, and influence decision-making. Words have the power to evoke hope, fear, joy, or anger, demonstrating that language is not merely a reflection of thought but a force that structures reality itself.
By recognizing this power, we become more aware of how language shapes our emotions and responses. Whether in literature, politics, or personal relationships, words do not just describe the world—they invite us to feel it in particular ways. The challenge, then, is to use language responsibly, understanding its ability to move hearts and minds, for better or for worse.
When we get to two of the eight categories—propositions and subjective forms—I turn to Mark Antony’s funeral oration in Shakespeare’s Julius Caesar.
Whitehead suggests that propositions are more than logical statements; they are “lures for feeling.” When communicated, they initiate and evoke subjective forms in their audiences—moods, emotions, and attitudes that shape how people interpret and respond to what is said.
Antony’s speech is a masterful illustration of this power. On the surface, he appears to accept Brutus’s justification for Caesar’s assassination, repeatedly declaring, “Brutus is an honourable man.” Yet, through tone, repetition, and irony, this proposition transforms into an emotional lure, pulling the Roman crowd from passive mourning into active rebellion. What begins as a statement of fact subtly evolves into an invitation to doubt, question, and ultimately rage against Brutus and the conspirators.
This example underscores the impact of language on human experience. Political rhetoric, religious teachings, poetry, and even casual conversation all function as more than conveyors of information; they shape moods, direct attention, and influence decision-making. Words have the power to evoke hope, fear, joy, or anger, demonstrating that language is not merely a reflection of thought but a force that structures reality itself.
By recognizing this power, we become more aware of how language shapes our emotions and responses. Whether in literature, politics, or personal relationships, words do not just describe the world—they invite us to feel it in particular ways. The challenge, then, is to use language responsibly, understanding its ability to move hearts and minds, for better or for worse.
Rhetorical Strategies
Marc Antony employs a range of rhetorical strategies in his speech to manipulate the emotions of the Roman crowd and turn them against Brutus and the conspirators. Some of the most effective strategies include:
- Irony and Sarcasm – Antony repeatedly refers to Brutus and the conspirators as “honorable men,” but with increasing skepticism. His tone shifts subtly, making it clear that he means the opposite, leading the crowd to question Brutus’ credibility without Antony ever directly attacking him.
- Pathos (Emotional Appeal) – Antony does not rely on logical argument alone; he stirs the crowd’s emotions. His lament, “My heart is in the coffin there with Caesar,” invites the people to grieve with him, creating a shared emotional experience.
- Dramatic Pauses and Performance – Antony strategically pauses, pretending to be overwhelmed with emotion. This theatrical display enhances his sincerity and gives the crowd time to process their emotions, making them more receptive to his message.
- Repetition – By repeatedly stating that Brutus is an “honorable man,” Antony allows the phrase to become hollow and ironic. This technique subtly shifts the audience’s perception, making them doubt Brutus without Antony ever explicitly saying so.
- Verbal Manipulation (Paralipsis) – Antony claims that he does not intend to incite the crowd to rebellion (“I am not here to stir you up”), while doing precisely that. By pretending to withhold incendiary remarks, he makes them even more potent when he finally delivers them.
- Appeal to Evidence (Caesar’s Will and Cloak) – Antony dramatically reveals Caesar’s will, which supposedly leaves money and land to the citizens, portraying Caesar as a benefactor of the people. He also shows them Caesar’s cloak, identifying each stab wound and naming the conspirators, making the abstract crime visceral and personal.
- Contrasting Past and Present – Antony reminds the crowd of how they once loved Caesar, saying, “You all did love him once, not without cause.” By juxtaposing their past admiration with their current acceptance of his murder, he forces them to recognize their inconsistency and rekindle their loyalty to Caesar.
- Invoking Collective Memory – By repeatedly using the term “Romans” and referring to their shared values, Antony taps into the crowd’s identity and collective sense of justice, making them feel personally betrayed by the conspirators.
- Gradual Escalation – Antony carefully builds his argument, starting with sorrow and ending with rage. He does not immediately incite violence but allows the crowd’s emotions to escalate naturally, making them feel as though rebellion is their own idea.
Nick Baldasare
Addendum:
The Historical Julius Caesar
Melvyn Bragg and his guests discuss the life, work and reputation of Julius Caesar. Famously assassinated as he entered the Roman senate on the Ides of March, 44 BC, Caesar was an inspirational general who conquered much of Europe. He was a ruthless and canny politician who became dictator of Rome, and wrote The Gallic Wars, one of the most admired and studied works of Latin literature. Shakespeare is one of many later writers to have been fascinated by the figure of Julius Caesar.
With:
Christopher Pelling
Regius Professor of Greek at the University of Oxford
Catherine Steel
Professor of Classics at the University of Glasgow
Maria Wyke
Professor of Latin at University College London
Producer: Thomas Morris.